Neos Alexandria - Alexandrias of the East

“From Alasanda ( Alexandria ) the city of the Yonas ( Greeks ) came the Thera Yonamahadhammarakkhita ( The Greek High Monk Dhammarakkhita ) with thirty thousand bhikkhus ( monks ).”

'Good, Nâgasena! Now do not your people say that a Bhikkhu ( monk ), who has the power and mastery over his mind, can vanish from Jambudivpa ( the world ) and appear in the Brahma world ( the highest heaven ), as quickly as a strong man could stretch forth his bent up arm, or bend it in again if it were stretched out? That is a saying I cannot believe. How is it possible that he could traverse so quickly so many hundreds of leagues?’

The above two excerpts comes from two of the most influential document from early Buddhism.

The first, the Mahavamsa chronicle the name and the various place of origin of the high monks who were around during the dedication of the Great Thupa in Sri Lanka. In it they document of a high monk named Dharmarakkhita who is of Greek origin and comes from a city known as Alexandria.

The second is known as the Milinda Panha ( or Questions of King Menander ) that documents the philosophical discussion between Nagasena and King Menander. In this discussion King Menander states that he is born in a town called Alexandria which lies 200 leagues away away from the Samkheyya Monastery.

If you now saying, “Greeks? Greeks in India?” that is precisely the question you should be asking. If that is your question, then the answer is yes. For four hundred years the Greeks were a power to contend with both in India and in Bactria. They ruled over many cities and were influential traders and merchants in the area. The Greeks mostly came with Alexander the Great and many ended up staying in India and Bactria for centuries to come. Most were of Macedonian descent but some were from the Greek colonies of Asia Minor like Miletia.

Now some readers would note that the city mentioned here is Alexandria. Now what Alexandria is this? Is this the Alexandria in Egypt, the one by the Mediterrenean sea?

That will be truly unlikely, especially given the testament from the Milinda Panha which states that Menander Alexandria is only 200 leagues ( equivalent of 1000km ) from either Palliputra or Sagala. Also to the Lankans the Yonas ( Greeks ) were considered people who dwelled far in the north of India, not in the west which makes it less likely that the Alexandria described is Alexandria in Egypt.

When Alexandria the Great conquered Bactria and India he founded, renamed or revived many cities in his wake. Among the many cities he founded are cities such as Alexandria of Eschate ( now the modern city of Khujand ), the furthest Greek city from Europe and Alexandria of the Oxus ( now believed to be very likely the archeological ruin of Ai Khanoum ) which later became a thriving inland city.

He revived neglected cities such as Kapisa which he renamed Alexandria of the Caucasus ( now the archaeological ruin of Bergram ) and Mundigak which he renamed Alexandria of the Arachosia ( now a city in Afghanistan known as Kandahar ).

Now Alexander the Great never saw the great cities themselves rise to power. What he did was found the city. According to various accounts most of the cities were just in their settlement phase when Alexander left them. For example with regards to the city of Alexandria of the Caucasus the city was first settled by 7000 Macedonians and 3000 natives according to Diodorus. The cities themselves only developed under the nurturing hands of the Seleucids from 305BCE onwards.

Alexander’s foundation of so many prominent Hellenic cities in Bactria and India however would change the course of history. It would set the stage for a vibrant Hellenic civilization that would exist in a near independent manner so many thousands of leagues East of the Mediterrenean for another three to four hundred years.

But more amazingly, it will be from these cities that a lot of revolutionary ideas that would later influence the both Indic and Sinic worldviews would later occur.

These series of articles will touch briefly about the Greeks in Bactria and India and their legacy in both Bactria and India. It is not meant to be an in depth article on the Greeks in Bactria and India but rather covers generalities.

Ancient coins have contributed greatly to the study of Hellenistic civilization, illuminating much that might otherwise be lost with our vanishing written records.

Before I go any further into the history of the Greco-Bactrians and the Indo-Greek one thing must be let known.

Unlike other forms of Hellenic studies, any inquiry into the Greco-Bactrian and the Indo-Greeks yields a paucity of written information. We have brief descriptions in Classical Western sources, brief descriptions in Chinese sources, and a few mention here and there in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sources. We may be lucky enough to find a few lines written in stones or in granite in archaeological sites. Or else through the grace of the Gods a few writing on paper may survive in partially decomposed state in a jar or urn somewhere.

In terms of archaeological evidence the recent sabotage by the Taliban over in Afghanistan of archaeological sites from the mid 1990 CE to the early 2000 CE has severely limited our ability to find new evidence to further expand our knowledge on this subject. However this does not mean that no new knowledge can be found. Areas like ancient Balkh for example has yet to be investigated thoroughly and new cities may just be found hidden in the ground somewhere.

However the one thing that allows us to study Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek history is nuministic evidence through coins. The Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kings were prolific coin makers and their coins not only depicted their portrait but also depicted trends and changes in the kingdom. Coins were used to symbolize victory, to denote important events in the kingdom, to denote marriages etc.. By studying the coins we are able to piece together this very interesting but quite unwritten part of history.

( This book contains one chapter that has all the primary Classical Western sources on the Greco-Bactrians and all literary finds in Afghanistan related to the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek period, recommended read)

4. The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies, Thomas McEvilly, 2002

7. The Greek Kingdom of Bactria: From Alexander to Eucratides the Great, Sidky , 2000

13. Religions of the Silk Road : overland trade and cultural exchange from antiquity to the fifteenth century. Richard Foltz 2000

17. Buddhism in India, from the Sixth Century BCE to Third Century AD, Ashok Kumar Anand 1996

20. www.wikipedia.com ( On the Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian and Greco-Buddhism section )

At this point Perdiccas exposed the royal throne to public view. On this lay Alexander's crown, robe and arms, and Perdiccas placed upon it the ring the king had given him the previous day. The sight of these objects once more brought tears to the eyes of all and rekindled their grief. 'For my part,' said Perdiccas, 'I return to you the ring handed to me by Alexander, the seal of which he would use on documents as symbol of his royal and imperial authority. The anger of the gods can devise no tragedy to equal this with which we have been afflicted; and yet, considering the greatness of Alexander's achievements, one could believe that such a great man was merely on loan from the gods to the world so that, when his duty to it was complete, they might swiftly reclaim him for their family. Accordingly, since nothing remains of him apart from the material which is excluded from immortality, let us perform the due ceremonies to his corpse and his name, bearing in mind that the city we are in, the people we are among and the qualities of the leader and king of whom we have been deprived. Comrades, we must discuss and consider how we can maintain the victory we have won among the people over whom we have won it. We need a leader; whether it should be one man or more is up to you. But you must realize this: a military unit without a chief is a body without a soul. This is the sixth month of Roxane’s pregnancy. We pray that she has produced a male who, with the gods' approval, will assume the throne when he comes of age. Meanwhile, designate those you want as your leaders.' So spoke Perdiccas.

Nearchus then said that, while nobody could express surprise that only Alexander's blood line was truly appropriate for the dignity of the throne, to wait for a king not yet born and pass over one already alive suited neither the inclinations of the Macedonians nor their critical situation. The king already had a son by Barsine he said, and should be given the crown.

As Alexander the Great finally exhaled his last breath in Babylon in 325BCE the Greek civilization was about to undergo an upheaval. Unable to let go of Alexander and unable to find someone who can replace Alexander, the then largest Empire in the world was paralysed.

The first was the mentally infirmed half brother of Alexander the Great called Arrhideaus, the second his unborn child to Roxana who will later be named Alexander. Both were not really deemed to be suitable to rule an Empire so vast and thus the regency was given to Perdiccas. The third ruler will be Craterus himself as Alexander did mutter something that sounded like his name on his death bed.

Perdiccas proved himself to be too good at eliminating any competitors and quickly booted Craterus out of a position of power. He then got Meleager, his vice killed. He then through the Partition of Babylon placed people who supports him power and those who do not out ( excepting Bactria where things were kept intact ).

The essence of the Partition of Babylon is that each area will have its satrap/governor that will technically answer to the King but because the two Kings are incapable ( one mad, one unborn ) they will answer to Perdiccas. He however left the positions in India and Bactria largely unchanged but that may be because from the moment of Alexander’s death there were many soldiers from Greece and Macedon that openly wished to return to Greece but could not due to influence of the local governors set in place by Alexander the Great.

Perdiccas attempt to consolidate power by marrying Cleopatra of Macedon two years later ( sister to Alexander the Great ) resulted in a revolt by Antipater, Craterus, Ptolemy and Antigonus. At around the same time Ptolemy took the mummified body of Alexander to Egypt. This resulted in the first of a series of war known as the war of Diadochi which claimed multiple casualities which includes Perdiccas and Craterus. Perdiccas in fact was murdered. One of the person who murdered him was a general named Seleucus who was given the position of chiliarch during the Partition of Babylon. After Perdiccas death Seleucus was given the governorship of Babylon.

By the end of third Diadochi war the Hellenic Kingdom was now splintered into the Antipatrid ( that will soon become the Antigonid Empire ), the Seleucid Empire ( founded by Perdiccas own general Seleucus I Nikator ) and the Ptolemic Empire ( founded by Ptolemy I Soter ).

We will now focus on the Seleucid Empire as it is the Seleucid Empire that initially governed Bactria and her policies will determine the future of Bactria. It is also the actions of the first king of the Seleucid Empire, Seleucus I Nikator and his grandson Antiochus II in India that would ultimately determine the fate of the later Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

"Androcottus ( Chandragupta ), when he was fourteen years of age, saw Alexander, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of India, since its king was hated and despised on account of his wickedness and low birth."

"Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild elephant went to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos ( Chandragupta ) possessed India at the time Seleucos ( Seleucus I Nikator ) was preparing future glory."

"The Indians occupy some of the countries situated along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived the Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his own. But Seleucus I gave them to Chandragupta Maurya in consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants."

In 305BCE Seleucus I Nicator had to turn East and disengage from the war of Diadochi ( which allowed Ptolemy to acquire control of Cyprus ) to deal with the issues on his Eastern frontier.

The reason for this is that one Hellenic Indian satrapcy after the other was falling and collapsing. During the 20 year period from the death of Alexander the Great to Seleucus I Nicator return to the Eastern frontier no less than 4 major Satrapcies in the East has fallen.

The first to fall in the spring of 316BCE was the Satrapcy of Patala with Alexandria of the Indian Ocean taken. The next to fall was the Satrapcy of the Indus Valley with Alexandria of the Indus falling by summer of 316BCE. Gedrosia fell in 303BCE to the same unstoppable force.

The unstoppable force came in the form of a young twenty year old male at the time known as Chandragupta Maurya. With the guidance of his teacher Chanakya he began to conquer one Macedonian satrapcy after the other.

Chandragupta Maurya’s ambition however was not to conquer the Hellenic Satrapcies. Following the death of Alexander and the war of Diadochis and Seleucus trying to establish his power from Judae to Babylon the Eastern Satrapcies were neglected and were left practically defenseless. They were no threat to Chandragupta Maurya.

What he needed was the resources from these countries to conquer the mighty Nanda Empire which dominated the entire Ganges Basin.

Now the Nanda Empire was already in existence in the time of Alexander the Great and the only reason Alexander never got to meet the full might of the Nanda Army ( which is said to consist of 200,000 infantry, 80,000 calvaries, 8000 chariots and 6000 war elephants according to Plutarch) is because the Nanda Army’s main post was in the East, not in the West. After Alexander’s failed conquest of Magadha however the Nanda Army realizing that the main bulk of the threat now comes from the West and rightfully decided to position their army in the West. Historians have long speculated that part of the reason Alexander never conquered further may be because he knew fighting the Nanda empire could be another Gaugamela except this time he may not get the upper hand.

Now if we believe early Buddhist and Jain sources the Nanda kings due to their zealous tax collection policy began to affect the life of many poor people, with their last king Dhana Nanda being worse than most. The popular play Mudrarakshaksa written in the fourth century ( 700 years after the death of Chandragupta Mauray ) the just and fair Chanakya was a minister to Dhana Nanda and together with Chandragupta Maurya plotted the downfall of the wicked king.

Even with the resources of the Hellenic Satrapcies Chandragupta Maurya got initially defeated by the Nanda Empire. However ultimately he triumphed over the Nanda Empire and from there founded the Mauryan Empire.

Now by the time Seleucus I Nikator rode into Bactria most of the Indus was already under the governance of the Mauryan Empire. The only part of the Greco-Bactrian state not under the rule of the Mauryans at the time was Bactria, Sogdania and Ferghana. Arachosia was by default Mauryan. Seleucus I Nikator came into India with one extremely specific aim, to reclaim the Seleucid Empire at the very least to the Indus.

Authors like Appian and Strabo indicate that the reason Seleucus I Nicator did not achieve this in 305BCE was because he met Chandragupta Maurya in battle, came to an understanding during battle then arranged his daughter to marry Chandragupta Maurya.

The reality is most likely less amicable. Seleucus I Nicator after riding so far from Seleucia on the Tigris to India likely realized two things.

The Greeks though they ruled the cities did not really rule the countryside. The countryside mostly consist of local Bactrians who likely followed their own local customs and only nominally follow the Greeks.

The cities themselves though economically growing are unable to individually provide a significant army especially at this extremely early stage in Hellenistic history in the East. Alexandria of the Oxus ( Ai Khanoum ), one of the most well studied city archaeologically even at its economic and population peak under the Diodotids and Euthymedid may only have housed up to forty to fifty thousand or more people. However that would be nearly fifty years later. At that stage it was probably just a settlement. All the major Greek cities in Bactria when Seleucus I was riding through to meet Chandragupta Maurya were all still growing. The only exception being Bactra.

Chandragupta Maurya had the upper hand in this situation. His supply lines were short. The cities that support him are nearby and well established.

The battle between Seleucus I Nicator and Chadragupta Maurya could not have turned out well for Seleucus I Nicator as he not only gave away his daughter in a marriage alliance, he also gave away Alexandria of the Caucasus which reverted to the name Kapisa and effectively sealed the Greek access through the Hindu Kush till it was recaptured 120 years later by Demetrius.

Seleucus I Nicator’s however was gifted 500 elephants by the Mauryan King. These 500 elephants would play a major role in 301BCE in the Battle of Ipsus, so it was probably a good investment. To the credit of the Mauryan Kings they effectively allowed cities with a majority Greek population to continue on their customs and ways as it is appropriate.

Under Seleucus I Nicator the Seleucid Empire eastern border shrank from the Indus River to the Balacrista in Iran. The frontier provinces of the Seleucid Empire is now basically Ferghana, Sogdania and Bactria.

On the other hand though it is because of this concession that Seleucus I Nicator won an ally and friend in the Mauryan Empire. This friendship with the Seleucid Empire was upheld by every Mauryan King who followed and the Mauryans kings only expanded south, west or East, never north into Bactria even when they had ample opportunity to do so.

“ Seleucus had seventy-two satraps under him, so extensive was the territory over which he ruled. The greater part he had transferred to his son, but he continued to reign over the country which lies between the Euphrates and the sea. The last war that he waged was with Lysimachus for the possession of Phrygia on the Hellespont. Lysimachus was defeated and slain in battle.”

The Seleucids were extremely aware that their territory was large and potentially overstretched in many respects. They knew they ruled over a large number of cultures and a large number of former nations that will not necessarily accede to their rule or to the Hellenic polis code. Though Antiochus I ( son of Seleucus ) was a half Persian and as a result of this was given the task of ruling Persia by his father by 291BC they still had areas like Bactria that will be difficult to rule.

The first two Seleucids ruler were acutely aware that the only way to secure and strengthen their rule in Asia was to populate the cities with Greeks or people who can speak Greek and understands the Greek culture.

However unlike the previous colonization of Asia Minor by the Greeks when the very high population density on the Aegean peninsula necessitated movement to Asia Minor, in Seleucus and Antiochus time no such precondition to a population overspill was in existence. If populations are to migrate, it has to be planned and it has to be systematic.

Among the Seleucids, colonization was through creating and establishing military colonies. We know that as an incentive to the settlers each settler was given a cleros ( allotment of a piece of land ). This incentive would likely have drawn many poorer Greeks or Hellenized individuals to immigrate to cities or towns that provide cleros. There will be an obligation for a person who holds a piece of land to at least be able to serve in the military or provide people who can serve in the military. How this is guaranteed or enforced we are unable to tell.

Now it should be noted that the aim of every military colony is to ultimately become a polis. Whilst around the Mediterrenean it generally implies being filled with people of Greek and Macedonian descent, from the river Euphrates eastward it implies a city that has a Greek organization and civic form and one that spoke Greek.

The reason for this is that whilst most colonist on the cleros policy from the Mediterrenean to the West of the River Tigris and Euphrates tend to be Greeks or Macedonians, this does not hold true for areas East. In the East is a tendency for the migrants to be Asiatic. As a direct evidence of this many settlers on the clerus system that came East for example to cities like Avroman in Kurdistan were all Asiatic names. Using indirect evidence it is very unlikely that the Greek cities in Bactria had a very high level of migration of genetic Greeks and Macedonians ( excepting the Alexandrias ) as modern genetic testing has shown a near lack of presence of Greek and Macedonian contribution in modern gene pool in these region.

However what is obvious is that the colonies and cities attracted people who spoke Greek and had a Greek culture. Ai Khanoum ( very likely Alexandria of the Oxus ) even though it was founded in the time of Alexander the Great only began to have major building developments starting from 280BCE onwards. The economic boom and definite population boom following the Seleucid policy is definitely evident as on this site we find a gymnasium far larger than what you get in most colonies. In this period Greek style mansions rose like mushrooms overlooking the river Oxus from this city. There was even enough money to go around to build a temple to Zeus that is almost a replica to the temple of Zeus in Olympia excepting its exterior is Persian in design. The people of this city obviously enjoyed themselves as they had a theatre with five thousand seats. This indicates that the economy of the area must have been very good.

It is also obvious that the population in the city got Hellenized with time. Though we have no list of names of people who came to Ai Khanoum on the clerus system we can probably safely assume that given the number of Greek names found on tombs and funerary urns they were likely either Greek or Hellenized individuals who eventually took on a Greek name. In Takht-I Sangin we find definite evidence of Hellenization in place with a dedication of a Greek style altar to the River Oxus inscribed in Greek by an Atrosokes which goes, “Atrosokes dedicated this ex-voto to the Oxus.”

It should be noted that despite the increasing presence of Greek or at least Hellenized populations within the city outside in the countryside the population remained untouched by Hellenism and remained nominal to the rule of the Seleucids. Even after the fall of the Greco-Bactrians the Chinese traveler Zhang Qian noted that only the urban people of Daxia shares a common custom with the people of the Dayuan. This implies that the countryside in general does not share the common customs.

The Hellenization however of the urban centres in Bactria will have a long term impact in central Asia.

Diodotus, the satrap of the thousand cities of Bactria defected and proclaimed himself king; all the other people of Asia followed his example and seceded from the Macedonians

There was at this time one Arsaces, a man of uncertain origins but certainly of proven bravery. This man accustomed to living by brigandage and plunder, having heard that Seleucus II was defeated by the Gauls was thus free from fear of the king. He invaded parthia with a band robbers and caught their governor Andragoras by surprise, removed him from power and took over. Not much later Arsaces also seized Hyrcania and thus endowed with power over two states he prepared a large army out of fear of Seleuces II and Diodotus I, king of Bactria. Soon after Diodotid I died. Relieved by the death of Diodotus the First, Arsaces made peace and concluded an alliance with his son, also by the name of Diodotus. Some time later he fought against Seleucus who came to punish the rebels, but he prevailed: the Parthians celebrated this day as the one that marked the beginning of their freedom

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If we ever have a black hole in our knowledge on the Greco-Bactrians, it is about the very genesis of the Greco-Bactrian states.

Popular belief inspired by the account of Justin states that the Satrap of Bactria, Diodotus I in response to the weakened state of the Seleucid empire due to Antiochus II engagement with war on the Ptolemics declared independence from the Seleucid state.

There are two commonly given reasons for this. One is that Arsaces, a Scythian invaded Parthia and wrested it from the rule of the Seleucids and made Parthia independent. Diodotus I seeing this opportunity made declared independence himself. However given that the Arsacid dynasty under the rule of Arsaces blocked all overland travel Diodotus I joined force with Seleucus with the only reason why no battle was fought was because Diodotus I died and his son took over and became friend with Arsaces.

The second theory is that Andragoras, the Satrap of Parthia declared Parthia independent. Diodotus being the friend of Andragoras likewise declared Bactria independent. Arsaces invaded Parthia and destroyed Andragoras and started the Achaemid dynasty. This angered Diodotus I who sought to attack Arsaces only to die before he could do this. Arsaces became a good friend with his son Diodotus II.

Though these stories if we were to piece of Justin and Strabo’s work together sounds logical nuministic evidence suggest a different story. Based upon the coinage of Diodotus I we know that Diodotus I was a satrap in Bactria whose mint is primarily in Ai Khanoum though this changed to Balkh later. We know that he continued to mint both Antiochus I and Antiochus II into his coins as well as the Seleucid Apollo. However his coins changed somewhere in the reign of Antiochus II where he began to mint an older portrait of himself and the symbol of house Diodotid, the thundering Zeus on his coins but still declare it the coins of King Antiochus II.

Interestingly not long after his coins began to show victory wreaths with Antiochus II. What this means is unknown but it is presumed to indicate that he and Antiochus II had a victory against Arsaces as hinted by Justin. We know that from this coins series on even though Diodotid I continued to maintain the coins in the name of Antiochus II he began to wear the wreath and the diadem.

Numinist interprets this changes as suggesting that Diodotid I has with time grown more independent off the Seleucids though still maintain loyalty to the Seleucids. Diodotid I contrary to what Justin has to say probably grew more independent off the rule of the Seleucid but remain deeply loyal to them regardless

This changed completely on the coinage of Diodotid II. Diodotid II dropped all references to the Seleucids from his coins. Diodotid II thus declared independence from the Seleucid Empire. Interestingly enough Diodotid II also removed the victory wreath from his coins that was so prevalent in both his and his father’s coins earlier on. This support the idea that Arsaces is indeed the friend of Diodotid II and that Diodotid I did attack the Arsaces and succeeded hence the victory wreath.

So based upon nuministic evidence whilst Diodotid I may have slowly weaned Bactria off total dependence on the Seleucids, it seems that Diodotid II was the one who declared independence.

There is also another notable feature of the coinage of Diodotid II. In the reign of Diodotid II there is an increasing amount of mintage of low denomination coins in circulation. What more, whilst among the high denomination coins it the image of the thundering Zeus that prevails, low denomination coins featured the syncretic and extremely popular Goddess Artemis Anahita. Artemis Anahita is frequently called “Lady Moon”.

The indications are that Diodotid II was not only trying to reach out to the Hellenic population but also to the local population. Artemis as Anahita or Anahita as Artemis was popular among both Greeks and local Bactrians. The second indication is that the locals are beginning to participate more in the local economy and thus the demand for the low denomination as most of them are poor and requires a smaller mintage. Third it also means that the level of economic activity especially when it comes to everyday goods are probably increasing and thus necessitated the need for more low denomination coins.

The Diodotids are likely the architects of an independent Greco-Bactrian culture from the Seleucid. With them came the fusion of the native Persian Bactrian culture and the Hellenistic culture of the era.

When he received word that Euthydemus was near Tapuria with his military forces, and that his ten thousand calvarymen were stationed in front to guard the ford at the Arius River, Antiochus III chose to abandon the seige and face this situation. Since the river was a march of three days away, he traveled at the a measured pace for two days then commanded the rest to set off at daybreak after breakfast while he himself advanced at a fast pace overnight with calvary and light infantry, together with ten thousand peltasts. For Antiochs had learned that while the enemy calvary lay in wait during the day by the edge of the river by night they pulled back to a city not less than twenty stades away. Because the plain was easy to cross on horseback, Antiochus completed the march by night and at daybreak crossed the river with most of his own forces.

The calvary of Bactria when alerted by their scouts sallied forth and engaged the enemy. Antiochus considered it vital to withstand the first charge of the enemy, so he summoned two thousand cavalry accustomed to facing danger around him; the rest he ordered to deployed by squads or troops and there hold each of their usual positions. He himself with the aforementioned cavalry met and engaged the first of the Bactrians to charge. Antiochus seems in this particular engagement have fought the most conspicuously of those with him. Accordingly though many were killed on both sides the king’s forces defeated the first cavalry charge.

At the critical moment Panetolus, the mercenary captain issued commands to join Antiochys and those battling beside him. He compelled the oncoming Bactrians to change course and flee headlong in disarray. Those being pressed upon by Panaetolus did not halt till they reached Euthydemus though most have already been killed. The Seleucid King cavalry, having killed many, on the one hand, and taken many alive, on the other, retired and camped beside the river. In this particular battle Antiochus horse was wounded and killed, and the king himself was struck through the mouth and lost some teeth. On the whole, he acquired on that occasion his greatest reputation for valor. Because of this battle Euthydemus was caught off guard and retreated with his forces into the Bactrian city of Zarispa.

For Euthydemus himself was a native of Magnesia, and he now, in defending himself to Teleas, said that Antiochus was not justified in attempting to deprive him of his kingdom, as he himself had never revolted against the king, but after others had revolted he had possessed himself of the throne of Bactria by destroying their descendants. After speaking at some length in the same sense he begged Teleas to mediate between them in a friendly manner and bring about a reconciliation, entreating Antiochus not to grudge him the name and state of king, as if he did not yield to this request, neither of them would be safe; for considerable hordes of nomads were approaching, and this was not only a grave danger to both of them, but if they consented to admit them, the country would certainly relapse into barbarism. After speaking thus he dispatched Teleas to Antiochus. The king, who had long been on the look-out for a solution of the question when he received Teleas report, gladly consented to an accommodation owing to the reasons above stated. Teleas went backwards and forwards more than once to both kings, and finally Euthydemus sent off his son Demetrius to ratify the agreement. Antiochus, on receiving the young man and judging him from his appearance, conversation, and dignity of bearing to be worthy of royal rank, in the first place promised to give him one of his daughters in marriage and next gave permission to his father to style himself king. After making a written treaty concerning other points and entering into a sworn alliance, Antiochus took his departure, serving out generous ratons of corn to his troops and adding to his own the elephants belonging to Euthydemus. Crossing the Caucasus he descended into India and renewed his alliance with Sophagasenus the Indian king. Here he procured more elephants, so that his total force of them amounted now to a hundred and fifty, and after a further distribution of corn to his troops, set out himself with his army, leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus to collect the treasure which the king had agreed to pay. 13 Having traversed Arachosia and crossed the river Erymanthus he reached Carmania through Drangene, where, as winter was now at hand, he took up his quarters. Such was the final result of Antiochus's expedition into the interior, an expedition by which he not only brought the upper satraps under his rule, but also the maritime cities and the princes this side of Taurus. In a word he put his kingdom in a position of safety, overawing all subject to him by his courage and industry. It was this expedition, in fact, which made him appear worthy of his throne not only to the inhabitants of Asia, but those of Europe likewise

The next influential Greco-Bactrian King after the Diodotids is Euthydemus. Little is known as to exactly how he ascended to power let or whether he actually murdered Diodotid II.

All we do know for sure is that he succeeded the Diodotids and maintained the rule of Bactria, Sogdania and Ferghana intact. We know from nuministic evidence that he was for a time the rival of the Diodotids as the coins of Diodotid II and that of Euthydemus are found from the same epoch. We know is that he is a Magnesian Greek though whether he is born from a person from Magnesia or actually from Magnesia himself we do not know. We also know that during his reign the Greco-Bactrian kingdom came under increasing pressure from the nomads who were expanding from the North.

Had not Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid Empire not attempt to retake Bactria Euthydemus may have gone practically unrecorded. Antiochus III basically inherited a fragmented, weak, disorganized Seleucid Empire. In an attempt to secure it he began to attack a few other Hellenic kingdoms. In 208BCE Antiochus III rode into Bactria with the desire to bring the country back into the fold of the Seleucids.

Here we have the most complete and thorough account of practically any event in Hellenistic Bactria. Euthydemus already anticipating the coming of Antiochus III gathered a large army and marched on to meet the Seleucid King. The Bactrian army was to secure the crossing at the Arian River. Knowing it futile to try to confront them, Antiochus III crossed the river by night.

When the Bactrian calvary realized that the Seleucid King has crossed the river they rode back as fast as they could to Euthydemus though they lost a large number of people in the process. Euthydemus unable to engage Antiochus given the state of his cavalry had to retreat behind the walls of Bactra. From 208BCE to 206BCE the king of Bactria lay seiged within.

Antiochus III eventually realizing the futility of this sent the Magnesian Teleas to negotiate with Euthydemus, a Magnesian himself. In it Euthydemus had two messages for Antiochus. The first is that Antiochus should not be angry with him as it was the Diodotids who turned Bactria independent and he merely carried out what they’ve done and not only that he has punished the descendents of the Diodotids.

The second message was a more practical one in that he warned Antiochus that as they were bickering amongst themselves the nomads could sweep down at any time and destroy the Hellenic civilization over in Bactria. This was no empty threat. Modern evidence shows that Sogdania gained independence from Bactria during the reign of Euthydemus I and it is most likely due to nomadic invasion. We know that they were an organized force to deal with as they learnt from the Greeks their military tactics and were themselves were minting coins which made the Greek lose one of the major economic advantages. We also know that the Greco-Bactrians took them seriously as they were already fortifying walls in the city of Ai-Khanoum to the north in the 2^nd century BCE.

Antiochus III relented and Teleas managed to forge out an agreement between both man which saw Demetrius marrying the daughter of Antiochus III and Euthydemus remained king of Bactria though he had to cede quite a few elephants to Antiochus III.

We know that the above is true as the mintage of coins for Euthydemus had three major phases, with the second phase showing a symbol of the Seleucids. This is clearly the period when Euthydemus was under capture by the Seleucid. We also suspect that the lifting of the siege in Bactria may be marked by a series of gold octradam made in the name of Euthydemus with his symbol, that of a bearded Herakles anointing himself.

The end of Euthydemus reign would mark a new beginning for the Greco-Bactrian Empire, because from this point on history for the Greeks would lie south, in India, and the person who will open the door will be the son of Euthydemus, Demetrius I.

Heliodotos dedicated this fragrant altar (???) so that the greatest of all kings Euthydemus, as well as his son, the glorious, victorious and remarkable Demetrius, be protected from all pains, with the help of Tykhe with divine thoughts

. Teleas went backwards and forwards more than once to both kings, and finally Euthydemus sent off his son Demetrius to ratify the agreement. Antiochus, on receiving the young man and judging him from his appearance, conversation, and dignity of bearing to be worthy of royal rank, in the first place promised to give him one of his daughters in marriage and next gave permission to his father to style himself king.

"The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew so powerful on account of the fertility of the country that they became masters, not only of Ariana, but also India, so Apollodotus of Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued by them than by Alexander— by Menander in particular (at least if he actually crossed the Hypanis towards the east and advanced as far as the Imaus), for some were subdued by him personally and others by Demetrius, the son of Euthydemus, the king of the Bactrians. They took over not only the Patalene but also the rest of the coast, which is called the Kingdom of Saraostos and Sigerdis. In sum, Appolodorus says that Bactria is the Jewel of all Ariana, moreover, they extended their empire as far as the Seres and Phryni

(???? ) having bestowed many privileges amounting to hundreds of thousands of the City-Corporation and the Realm-Corporation. In the seventh year of his reign, his famous wife of Vajigraha obtained the dignity of auspicious motherhood. Then in the eighth year Karavela with a large army having sacked Goradhagiri causes pressure on Rajagaha. On account of the loud report of this act of valor, the Yavana (Greek ) King Dimita ( Demetrius I of Bactria ) retreated to Mathura having extricated his demoralized army.

Beyond is Arachosia. And the Parthians call this White India; there are the city of Biyt and the city of Pharsana and the city of Chorochoad and the city of Demetrias; then Alexandropolis, the metropolis of Arachosia; it is Greek, and by it flows the river Arachotus. As far as this place the land is under the rule of the Parthians.